2.1 The Evolution of Sports Sponsorship
The real beginnings of the concept of sponsorship date back to the period between the 1970s and 1980s, when companies began to adopt ideas supporting philanthropy and attempted to link them to commercial or profit dimensions (Ryan & Fahy, 2012). Due to the lack of clarity of the concept of sponsorship at that time, many sponsoring companies classified it as consumer expenditure, away from considerations of benefits or returns (Cornwell et al., 2005). The early 1990s are seen by many writers as the period of conceptual maturity for sponsorship, with qualitative and quantitative growth in studies testing it, defining it as an activity bounded by time and place, involving many rights, advantages, and obligations (Masloub, 2018). In the modern era, sponsorship has focused heavily on the relationship between the sponsorship program (event) and the consumer, moving beyond the nature of the sponsoring organization’s work (Xiao et al., 2024).
Over the past two decades, sponsorship has witnessed rapid growth as a tool for communication and reaching customers. Until 1970, sponsorship revolved mainly around donations and grants given to sports or cultural activities without any expectation of receiving anything in return (Gordon & Cheah, 2014). In 1980, sponsorship underwent fundamental shifts in objectives and expectations, replacing charitable sponsorship that depended on the institution’s status and market position (Kesenne, 2005). Thereafter, sponsorship developed markedly from a small-scale activity into an institutional industry worldwide based on the volume of money spent (Walliser, 2003). Sponsorship became a communication method involving allocating large sums directed to community activities outside the organization’s core functions, surpassing most other promotional tools in a short time. It became a more professional approach requiring complex organizational processes and institutional planning activities involving multiple parties such as buyers, recipients, and sellers (Demir & Söderman, 2015).
Overall, studies still differ in setting a definitive definition of sponsorship. Definitions vary based on the sponsor, the activity sponsored, the type of link between the parties, and the marketing and communication goals sought (Walliser, 2003). Promotional perspectives also differed in classifying co-sponsorship activities between the organization and the local community, such as cash prizes bearing the company’s name (Alonso-Dos-Santos et al., 2024). In reality, sponsorship represents the commercial relationship between an entity (company) providing money, services, or resources and an individual, event, or organization, creating contractual rights and links that entail commercial benefits (Sleight, 1989). In 1990, Brooks explained that under sports sponsorship, sports rights are purchased by sponsors (including cash, product, or service) and then the logo and sports activities are linked with the company’s image in the target market, turning them into a competitive advantage. McCarville & Copeland (1994) added that sports sponsorship is an exchange process between companies and sports organizations: the company provides paid resources (money, equipment, facilities, etc.) and free resources (staff, technology, service, ideas, etc.) in exchange for opportunities linked to sports events and activities. Erdogan & Kitchen (1998) added that sponsorship is a practice seeking to promote the company and its brand by linking it to a specific event, organization, or charitable work (Madushani & Gunawardane, 2020).
Sports sponsorship is a way to improve companies’ image and reputation and gain more marketing opportunities (Biscaia et al., 2013), exchanging interests between sponsoring companies that provide funds and products, communicate with customers, and improve their image and sales performance (Madushani & Gunawardane, 2020). Sports sponsorship is the cash or in-kind amount paid for a tangible asset (sports, events, stadiums, public sports activities, etc.) to achieve the project’s goals (Hammad, 2021). Sports sponsorship is classified as a business activity linked to sport as the subject, structure, and content of support. It is part of an exchange of interests between the sponsor and the sponsored event, aiming to achieve benefits, purposes, or commercial or social goals with future financial returns (Nufer & Bühler, 2010).
Sports sponsorship is an effective tool that enhances the company’s community contribution and portrays it as a good corporate citizen. In markets, it stimulates awareness and perception, driving consumers to purchase its products (Fullerton, 2007). In 2017, the independent evaluation group IEG defined sponsorship as cash or in-kind fees from the sponsor’s assets, usually used in sports, art, and entertainment, in exchange for leveraging the commercial potential in those activities. The common basis between them is the exchange of fees and rights between sponsor and beneficiary to achieve several commercial goals. Ultimately, sports sponsorship is the product of a stage where sport and commercial activities developed significantly. Despite researchers’ differences in definition, they agree that the essence of sponsorship is a commercial agreement between the sponsor and sports entities (Alhadad, 2018).
Finally, in 2024, the authors of the current study presented a comprehensive definition of sports sponsorship: cash, in-kind, or logistical payments provided by the sponsoring company to a team or sports event in the country, directed to activities and events outside its core economic function. Through this functional reciprocal relationship, several commercial benefits for the sponsor can be achieved in exchange for providing any payments to the sponsored party.
Ultimately, sports sponsorship contracts reached $114.4 billion worldwide in 2024 (Statista, 2024), making sports sponsorship one of the fastest-growing marketing communication tools compared to traditional tools, as it provides broad visible media coverage, attracts a wide segment of society, serves specific fields, and can overcome cultural barriers between people (Almaiman et al., 2021). We add that sports sponsorship represents 80% of total commercial sponsorship contracts worldwide, and 87% of sports sponsorship contracts went to football, valued at $40 billion in 2023 (Statista, 2024). Europe ranked highest globally in sports sponsorship contracts at 62%. Sports sponsorship takes various forms, including team uniforms and accessories, sports facilities, training centers, equipment, and gyms (Groot & Ferwerda, 2015). It was found that 35% of European football clubs’ revenues in 2023 are attributed to sports sponsorship. Competition for global sponsorship contracts was limited to five global companies in order: Adidas, Coca-Cola, Nike, Puma, and Emirates (teampages.com, 2024). The highest football sponsorship deals were between Manchester United and Chevrolet at $64 million annually, totaling $559 million over 9 years (astuteanalytica.com, 2024). Arsenal signed a 5-year sponsorship worth $63.9 million. The English Premier League achieved the highest sponsorship revenues of €1.2 billion through 440 deals, followed by the German and Spanish leagues with about €734 and €678 million in 2018 (Sportskeeda.com). Sports sponsorship revenues for the 2022 World Cup reached $1.7 billion.
2.2 Measuring the Impact of Sports Sponsorship
The sports audience is a distinct market with characteristics that set it apart from other consumer markets (Bühler & Nufer, 2010). The concept of psychological attachment and empathy imposes on the sports consumer many positive attitudes and behaviors toward the favorite team (Groot & Ferwerda, 2015), as measurement theory relies on the cognitive aspect controlling sports audience behavior toward the favorite team (Shank & Beasley, 1998). The literature views the emotional aspect as an important element because it relies on feelings and is considered the most influential on the sports audience, making them more enthusiastic, impulsive, and passionate toward the sponsor brand (Dolphin, 2003).
While the ordinary consumer is concerned with the tangible elements of the product to be purchased or when preferring a specific brand such as price and quality (Bühler & Nufer, 2011), sports clubs used different factors in designing marketing communication strategies with fans, relying on meeting their psychological needs, satisfying their emotions, and employing their feelings to enhance loyalty (Weissman, 2014). Thus, they worked at a deeper level of relationship with the audience, imposing commitment and engaging in activities that distinguish them from other fans, such as wearing team apparel and purchasing products bearing its logo and brand (Meir & Scott, 2007).
Sponsoring companies have leveraged fans’ emotions and empathy with their favorite sports teams, employing these issues to serve short-term sales goals, with Chadwick & Thwaites (2005) adding several long-term benefits. These studies linked sports sponsorship to sponsor image, improved purchase intentions, and brand publicity (Jensen & White, 2018), alongside its impact on brand equity (Xiao et al., 2024). The above shows that sports sponsorship effectively enhances awareness components, deepens loyalty, and boosts short-term sales benefits (Pickton & Broderick, 2005).
2.2.1 Awareness (Perception) of Sports Sponsorship
Awareness is defined as the individual’s ability to recognize, recall, or identify the brand in different situations; it is also a measure of the brand’s salience in the consumer’s mind and its remaining top-of-mind during the purchase decision process (Konstantoulaki et al., 2021). In marketing communication, brand awareness is the first step to campaign success, paving the way for deeper consumer engagement and conversion toward the brand (Bergkvist & Skeiseid, 2024). Awareness is seen as a primary goal in marketing products and creating a brand image in the recipient’s mind (Grohs et al., 2024).
In sports sponsorship, sponsor brands strategically enter agreements to enhance awareness of both the sponsor brand and the sponsored entity in the target market (Alessandro et al., 2019). Achieving this awareness is crucial for the sponsor because it helps achieve other strategic objectives such as enhancing brand image and improving consumers’ purchase intentions (Zhang, 2023). Failure to create positive awareness of sports sponsorship activities would hinder the achievement of broader goals and link them to sponsor performance, especially when evaluating sponsorship ROI (Meenaghan & O’Sullivan, 2013). Awareness in sports sponsorship also plays a role in assessing sponsorship efficiency and its impact on consumers’ emotional and behavioral responses (Madushani & Gunawardane, 2020).
The core goal of increasing sponsor brand equity rests on five basic elements that start with cognitive responses (behavior, purchase, commitment) and indicate the cognitive process of awareness and brand image (Alhadad, 2018). Sports sponsorship research has shown that sponsorship awareness is a behavior preceding the emotional response, and congruence between knowledge and emotion transfers positive feelings from the favorite team to the team’s sponsor (Hunt & Hunt, 2022). Consumers with an individualistic orientation tend to respond more positively to promotional offers emphasizing self-benefit, whereas collectivist consumers are influenced by participation and collective promotion of benefit (Zong, 2023). In collectivist cultures similar to Jordan’s, emphasis is on group harmony and interdependence; thus, the impact of awareness of sports sponsorship is more evident, as sports audiences in such societies experience strong transfer of positive feelings and focus on group loyalty and relational interdependence (Shi et al., 2024). This congruence enhances fans’ attitudes toward the sponsor brand of their favored sports entity (Biscaia et al., 2013).
Studies have shown a significant contribution of sports sponsorship to awareness and sponsor brand image. Research in developed countries, especially the US and Europe, indicated the important role of sports sponsorship in building brand awareness in South Africa (Sarpong & Zungu, 2025). To measure sponsorship effectiveness, several factors were combined, such as supporters’ beliefs about sponsorship, their satisfaction with the sports event, and their level of sports participation. It was found that sponsorship awareness affects respondents’ intention and actual purchase behavior (Koronios et al., 2020). Other studies measured the efficiency of sports sponsorship determinants like positive belief, team association, and participation, finding a significant impact on awareness and audience attitude toward the sponsor brand (Koronios et al., 2019). In 2017, sports sponsorship was found to impact brand equity and enhance awareness (Shoaib et al., 2017). Finally, Alsahli and Al-Nsour’s study found a strong positive relationship between awareness of sports sponsorship and sponsor brand image in the Saudi Roshn League (Al-Nsour & Alsahli, 2027, in press).
2.2.2 The Relationship Between Sports Sponsorship and Interaction with the Sponsor Brand
Audience interaction describes cognitive and emotional commitment and an active relationship with the sponsor brand (Singh & Bhatia, 2013), enabling communication with the audience via social platforms (Kujur & Singh, 2017). Interaction allows providing reviews on brand pages and engaging in practices that offer information or cues about various brand aspects (Wu et al., 2025). The volume of posts about a brand indirectly affects audience comments and increases likes and engagement with the sponsor brand (Dhaoui & Webster, 2021). Interaction is key to positivity and reducing negative reactions and comments about the brand (Zarei Mahmoudabadi et al., 2019); publishing images, texts, videos, and positive comments are indicators of brand interaction (Chou et al., 2024).
Studies confirm that interaction is a psychological process that stimulates loyalty and repeat purchase (Kulkarni, 2022). In sports, sponsorship is vital in building audience interactions with the sponsor brand, often determining the value and duration of the sponsorship deal. It also increases audience awareness of certain sports activities and drives them to participate and belong to them (Meenaghan & O’Sullivan, 2013). Ultimately, interaction with sports sponsorship events reflects individual needs, risk, benefit, and enjoyment (Laurent & Kapferer, 1985), generating gratitude in the recipient’s mind toward the sponsored event. Sports sponsorship for Rosenborg Ballklub (RBK) increased audience interaction with the brand on social platforms, helping renew sponsorship contracts and attracting more sponsors to local sports clubs (Biscaia et al., 2013). Sponsoring sports events raised interaction levels and played a fundamental role in determining audience responses to sponsorship in terms of positive thoughts and attitudes toward the sponsor brand (Roy et al., 2005; Tsiotsou & Alexandris, 2009).
2.2.3 The Relationship Between Sports Sponsorship and Sponsor Brand Image
Brand image is defined as consumers’ perceptions and impressions of the brand (Guliyev, 2023), including their feelings, attitudes, and beliefs (Patoding & Muzammil, 2023). In other words, brand image consists of all elements that shape it: visual identity (logo, colors, packaging), messages (advertising, slogans, storytelling), product quality, customer service, and brand reputation (Chae et al., 2025). Brand image represents a set of attributes, characteristics, benefits, and price, technical, and packaging information (Keller, 1993). Foroudi (2019) notes that a strong brand image is characterized by positive associations such as trustworthiness, reliability, quality, innovation, and differentiation from competitors, all contributing to brand equity (Kegoro & Justus, 2020). Jin (2019) argues that brand image influences consumer behavior, purchase decisions, and brand loyalty.
To enhance brand image, companies invest in strategies such as product innovation, customer engagement, and CSR programs (Breuer et al., 2021). Chandramohan (2024) concludes that brand image plays a crucial role in shaping consumer perceptions and preferences, thereby influencing their attitudes and behaviors toward the brand and its market success. A positive brand image is critical in sponsorship strategies due to its effect on consumer perceptions and purchase intention (Kunkel & Biscaia, 2020). The relationship between sponsor and event enhances brand perception among fans, spurs purchase intention, and influences evaluation and ranking of sponsoring companies (Huettermann et al., 2020), strengthening friendship and exchange with market stakeholders (Yoo, 2023).
Studies concur on the impact of sports sponsorship on brand image, enhancing awareness and loyalty alongside short-term sales benefits (Grohs et al., 2015), and improving marketing communication performance (Yoo, 2023). Research cites the impact of sports sponsorship on the 2010 World Cup audience in South Africa, which created awareness and recall of several previously unknown brands (Prasad & Mills, 2010), versus the failure of well-known brands like Emirates (Coelho et al., 2019). Sponsorship messages convey specific information about the sponsor and its products (Ecker et al., 2023). Consumers use sponsorship to build knowledge and value around the brand, leveraging previously seen logos to identify the sponsor and bias toward the brand (Garza & Kennett, 2022). Brand image is a metric for sponsorship success, ensuring higher engagement, brand promotion and diffusion, improved audience relations, enhanced brand equity, and ultimately driving consumers to purchase (Schulz et al., 2024).
2.2.4 The Relationship Between Sports Sponsorship and Purchase Intention of the Sponsor Brand
Purchase intention is seen as an individual’s conscious plan to exert more effort toward buying a brand, providing a sense of the strength of adopting a specific purchase behavior in the future (Hermanda et al., 2019). Purchase intention is influenced by individual behaviors and attitudes (Hasena & Sakapunama, 2021) and serves as an indicator of the consumer’s readiness to engage in specific behaviors (Peña-García et al., 2020). Accordingly, intention encourages firms to focus marketing strategies on stimulating demand for their products rather than relying on passive sales techniques (Hermanda et al., 2019).
Studies affirm the impact of sports sponsorship on consumer purchasing behavior. Customers tend to evaluate brands that support their interests, increasing recognition, engagement, and ultimately sales (Patoding & Muzammil, 2023). Thus, sports sponsorship is an effective marketing strategy influencing purchase decisions, audience perceptions and loyalty to brands, and retaining them as long as possible (Nickell & Johnston, 2020). Sports sponsorship helps build lasting emotional relationships with customers, increasing exposure, connection, and engagement with the brand and improving purchase decisions (Hsiao et al., 2021). Understanding the complex relationship between purchase intention and consumer behavior helps design company communication strategies and better meet consumer needs and preferences, providing innovative solutions to meet those needs compared to competitors (Parvinen et al., 2020). From sponsors’ perspective, purchase intention is a key indicator to measure sponsorship effectiveness and will affect future sales volume (Li et al., 2022). Furthermore, the intention to buy sponsor products is pivotal in sponsor-sport organization relations and future sponsorship negotiations (Koronios et al., 2024). Sponsorship activities influence fans’ purchase intention and word-of-mouth opportunities (Koronios et al., 2023), building commercial ties, showing dedication and empathy for the sponsor, and spontaneously stimulating purchase intentions toward its products (Lee et al., 2024).
2.2.5 The Relationship Between Sports Sponsorship and Loyalty to the Sponsor Brand
Loyalty is defined as a deep, enduring feeling the consumer holds toward a particular brand (Wu et al., 2025). Loyalty is a marketing tool to establish long-term relationships with consumers, useful in times of competition, resulting in a strong positive relationship between loyalty and customer retention (Ko & Lee, 2019). Companies strive to create positive associations between consumers and their brand, sharing information and communicating with customers to build awareness, a positive brand image, and boost sales (Bachleda et al., 2016). Accordingly, consumer commitment to a particular brand generates repeat purchase and brand loyalty.
In sports sponsorship, sponsoring companies seek to maintain strong, ongoing relationships with customers and enhance their level of participation in building brands (Yu & Tan, 2017). Sports sponsorship increases consumer awareness, recall, and recognition of the brand (Seguin et al., 2005). It draws audience attention to brands, raises their interest, provides enjoyable experiences for the consumer, and creates more positive impressions in the consumer’s mind about the brand (Melovic et al., 2019), ultimately leading to positive emotional decisions that increase brand loyalty (Mei et al., 2021). Findings indicated that sports sponsorship enhances company image, purchase intention, and loyalty to the company and its products (Mohammadi et al., 2013). Other research summarized a strong effect of sports sponsorship on customer loyalty toward the sponsor brand, and loyalty affects consumer response, creating behavioral and attitudinal outcomes such as purchase (increased sales), emotion, attitudes, attachment, and brand fairness (Almaiman et al., 2023; Aaker, 1993; Biscaia et al., 2013; Liao, 2023; Hunt & Hunt, 2022; Monterian, 2020).
2.2.6 The Effect of Involvement in the Sponsor Brand (Moderating Variable)
Consumer involvement is defined as the perceived importance of the brand (Grohs & Reisinger, 2014). Customer involvement includes all group and individual interactions with the brand, embodying emotional attachment and activities like reading, writing, and conversation (Heinonen, 2018). Brand pages provide many options anytime and anywhere, enabling writing, chatting, and sharing photos and videos related to the brand (Wakefield et al., 2020). Involvement plays a prominent role in enhancing the brand’s sales and communication objectives and strengthening the customer’s psychological side through loyalty and repeat purchase (Maanda et al., 2022). Brand pages paved the way for customer involvement and interactive enjoyment with the audience, achieving many success opportunities for businesses at higher efficiency, and increased involvement helps obtain marketing information that raises marketing decision quality (Al-Nsour et al., 2021). Involvement generates adopting specific attitudes toward the brand, influencing sports sponsorship effectiveness (Grohs & Reisinger, 2014).
The level of involvement in the sports event is positively linked to attitudes toward the sponsor and the event, enhancing awareness of the sponsor brand (Grohs & Reisinger, 2014) and purchase intention as well (Koo & Lee, 2019). Audiences with higher involvement in the sports event have tendencies, attitudes, and positive reactions toward promotional messages (Alonso-Dos-Santos et al., 2018). Involvement helps improve the purchase experience, enhance social presence, strengthen brand image, and accelerate impulse buying (Sharma, 2020). Sports audience involvement helps predict purchase intentions of sports team products (Alonso Dos Santos et al., 2024). Studies add that sports audience involvement includes behavioral contributions like time, paying money for tickets, attending the sports event, and analyzing sports events, all important to understanding sports spectator behavior (Ibrahim, 2014).