Purpose

aja

Arab J Adm

The Arab Journal of Administration

المجلة العربية للإدارة

1110-5453 2663-4473

League of Arab States, Arab Organization for Administrative Development

Cairo, Egypt

887

10.21608/aja.2024.315397.1699

Marketing Nonprofit Management Social Media

The Impact of Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media on Nonprofit Brand Image: An Application to Donors of Nonprofit Organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt

تأثير الكلمة المنطوقة إلكترونيا عبر مواقع التواصل الاجتماعي على صورة العلامة التجارية غير الربحية بالتطبيق على المتبرعين للمنظمات غير الربحية في جمهورية مصر العربية

Badr

Fatma El-Zahraa Ibrahim

Fatma El-Zahraa Ibrahim Badr

Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Business Administration Arab Institute for Research and Studies Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO) League of Arab States Egypt dr.fatma.badr@iarsedu.net

Corresponding author: Dr. Fatma El-Zahraa Ibrahim Badr, Assistant Professor of Business Administration, Arab Institute for Research and Studies affiliated with ALECSO - League of Arab States, Egypt. E-mail: dr.fatma.badr@iarsedu.net

01 04 2026

04 2026

46 2 115 136

e1699

15 08 2024 15 10 2024 01 04 2026

2026

The Arab Journal of Administration

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

Purpose

This research aims to study the impact of Electronic Word of Mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image, with an application to donors in the Arab Republic of Egypt.

Methodology

A proposed model was designed for the study to serve as a guide for testing the impact of electronic Word of Mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image. Additionally, a survey was designed using Google Drive and was directed to donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt via an online survey. To analyze the primary data for the study, the SPSS statistical software was used for data entry. The sample size was 388 individuals, with 374 valid responses representing the study sample, consisting of donors to nonprofit organizations in Egypt, and 14 individuals who had not donated before. The WarpPLS 7 statistical software was also utilized to obtain the study results.

Findings

The statistical analysis results demonstrated a significant positive impact of Electronic Word of Mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image.

تهدف هذه الدراسة إلى دراسة تأثير الكلمة المنطوقة إلكترونيا عبر مواقع التواصل الاجتماعي على صورة العلامة التجارية غير الربحية، وذلك بالتطبيق على المتبرعين للمنظمات غير الربحية في جمهورية مصر العربية، وتم تصميم نموذج مقترح للدراسة لكي يستخدم كدليل لاختبار تأثير الكلمة المنطوقة إلكترونيا عبر مواقع التواصل الاجتماعي على صورة العلامة التجارية غير الربحية. كما تم تصميم قائمة الاستقصاء باستخدام محرك البحث Google Drive، وتم توجيهها إلى المتبرعين للمنظمات غير الربحية بجمهورية مصر العربية عبر الإنترنت Online Survey. ولتحليل البيانات الأولية للدراسة، تم استخدام البرنامج الإحصائي SPSS لإدخال البيانات الأولية. وقد بلغ حجم العينة 388 مفردة، وبلغ عدد القوائم الصحيحة والتي تمثل عينة الدراسة 374 قائمة، وهم الذين قاموا بالتبرع للمنظمات غير الربحية بجمهورية مصر العربية، وبلغ عدد من لم يتبرع من قبل 14 مفردة. كما تم الاعتماد على البرنامج الإحصائي WarpPLS 7 وذلك للوصول لنتائج الدراسة. وقد أوضحت نتائج التحليل الإحصائي وجود تأثير معنوي إيجابي للكلمة المنطوقة إلكترونيا عبر مواقع التواصل الاجتماعي على صورة العلامة التجارية غير الربحية.

Keywords Electronic Word of Mouth Nonprofit Brand Image Nonprofit Organizations Social Media eWOM Donors

الكلمات المفتاحية الكلمة المنطوقة إلكترونيا العلامة التجارية غير الربحية المنظمات غير الربحية مواقع التواصل الاجتماعي

Introduction

With the advancement of technology and the spread of the Internet, communication between individuals has become faster and more influential than ever before. With this progress, Electronic Word of Mouth (eWOM) has emerged and evolved to become one of the decision-making components used by consumers. Consumers communicate with their peers to endorse or condemn products or services they have experienced, and usually eWOM provides honest and balanced evaluations of brands from the perspectives of their users (Cheung et al., 2009).

On the other hand, nonprofit brand image is considered a vital and decisive element in promoting charity programs, whether these donations were monetary or in-kind (Bendapudi et al., 1996). This image plays a fundamental role in stimulating donations amid intense competition. Michaelidou et al. (2019) pointed out that nonprofit brand image is one of the important factors in the success of nonprofit organizations because it affects support and funding decisions by donors and stakeholders. Therefore, it was necessary to shed light on a number of important topics, namely electronic word of mouth on social media and nonprofit brand image.

This study is divided into two parts: the first is the theoretical framework and previous studies. The second addresses the applied study, as follows:

Received: August 2024; Accepted for publication: October 2024; Published electronically: October 2024

DOI: 10.21608/aja.2024.315397.1699

The aim of this study is to study the effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image, with an application to donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt. A proposed model was designed for the study to serve as a guide for testing the effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image. A questionnaire was also designed using Google Drive, and directed to donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt via the Internet Online Survey. The statistical analysis results showed a significant positive effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image.

Theoretical Framework and Previous Studies

This section addresses the study variables: electronic word of mouth on social media, and nonprofit brand image, as follows:

Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media

Sharma et al. (2024) defined electronic word of mouth as "an informal method that includes the electronic transfer of information from one source to another." Ismagilova et al. (2017) defined electronic word of mouth as "a dynamic and continuous process of information exchange between potential, actual, and former consumers regarding a product, service, brand, or company, and is available to a large number of individuals and institutions via the Internet."

Hennig-Thurau and Walsh (2003) and King et al. (2014) agreed that electronic word of mouth is "any positive or negative statement made by potential, actual, or former customers about a company and made available to a large number of individuals and institutions via the Internet." Litvin et al. (2008) also defined electronic word of mouth as "all informal communications directed at consumers through Internet-based technology related to the use or characteristics of goods or services or their sellers."

Therefore, it can be said that electronic word of mouth on social media is "any positive or negative statement issued by potential, actual, or former customers regarding a product, service, brand, or company, and made available to a large number of individuals and institutions through social media sites."

Based on the studies reviewed by the researcher, studies that addressed electronic word of mouth as a three-dimensional concept were found, such as the studies of Abouzeid et al. (2023), Hua et al. (2024), Al-Agha (2026), Hung et al. (2023), Liu et al. (2019), Wang et al. (2015), and Kim and Chu (2011). The study of Hua et al. (2024) and Abouzeid et al. (2023) concluded that the dimensions of electronic word of mouth are (quality of electronic word of mouth, quantity of electronic word of mouth, and credibility of electronic word of mouth).

The researcher adopted the opinion of Abouzeid et al. (2023) and Hua et al. (2024) that electronic word of mouth is a mixture of three dimensions: quality of electronic word of mouth, quantity of electronic word of mouth, and credibility of electronic word of mouth, which are presented as follows:

Quality of Electronic Word of Mouth

Electronic word of mouth of high quality is characterized by features such as modernity, comprehensibility, importance, and credibility (Lim et al., 2023).

Quantity of Electronic Word of Mouth

The quantity of electronic word of mouth refers to the volume of comments and reviews on the Internet related to a product or service (Hung et al., 2023). Reichelt et al. (2014) pointed out that consumers are increasingly turning to the Internet to search for product information and share it, and these practices lead to the availability of large quantities of consumer opinions on the Internet.

Credibility of Electronic Word of Mouth

The credibility of electronic word of mouth refers to the extent to which consumers perceive recommendations as trustworthy (Hong and Pittman, 2020). Ismagilova et al. (2020) pointed out that the credibility of electronic word of mouth is the degree to which an individual perceives that recommendations from others are believable, correct, or realistic.

Nonprofit Brand Image

There is no consensus on the definition of nonprofit brand image in the literature. Andreasen (2002) defined nonprofit brand image as "the impression formed by the public about the nonprofit organization based on all aspects of its communication and activities. This includes its reputation, values, messages it conveys, and how it interacts with society." Michaelidou et al. (2019) defined it as "the overall perception or impression that individuals form about the nonprofit organization based on their experiences, attitudes, and interactions with the organization."

Based on the studies reviewed by the researcher, studies that addressed nonprofit brand image as a four-dimensional concept were found, such as the studies of Michaelidou et al. (2019), Huang and Ku (2016), and Michel and Rieunier (2012), while other studies addressed it as a five-dimensional concept such as Bennett and Gabriel (2003), and other studies addressed it through six dimensions such as Michaelidou et al. (2015).

The studies of Huang and Ku (2016), Michel and Rieunier (2012), and Michaelidou et al. (2019) concluded that the dimensions of nonprofit brand image are (dynamism, usefulness, efficiency, and impact), while Bennett and Gabriel (2003) concluded that these dimensions are (compassion, dynamism, idealism, focus on beneficiaries, and non-political). Michaelidou et al. (2015) concluded that the dimensions of nonprofit brand image are (dynamism, usefulness, efficiency, impact, ethics, and reliability).

The researcher adopted the findings of the most recent study, Michaelidou et al. (2019), that nonprofit brand image is a mixture of four dimensions: dynamism, usefulness, efficiency, and impact, which are presented as follows:

Dynamism

Michaelidou et al. (2019) defined dynamism as "the ability to innovate and adapt to environmental and societal changes." Michel and Rieunier (2012) defined dynamism as "the organization's ability to adapt to changes and innovate in its strategies and programs." The study of Michaelidou et al. (2015) emphasized the importance of dynamism in nonprofit organizations' response to challenges and new opportunities in a flexible manner.

Usefulness

Usefulness refers to the extent of the value and impact of the services or products provided by nonprofit organizations on society (Michaelidou et al., 2019). Michel and Rieunier (2012) pointed out that usefulness means the extent of the organization's effectiveness in providing valuable services that lead to improving the lives of beneficiaries. Michaelidou et al. (2015) pointed out that usefulness relates to the actual results achieved by the nonprofit organization and its impact on individuals and society.

Efficiency

Michaelidou et al. (2019) pointed out that efficiency reflects how resources are used effectively to achieve desired goals. That is, efficiency measures the extent of the organization's ability to use its resources effectively to achieve its goals. Michel and Rieunier (2012) pointed out that efficiency is an essential part of nonprofit brand image. Michaelidou et al. (2015) discussed how nonprofit organizations can improve their efficiency to ensure achieving their goals more effectively.

Impact

Michaelidou et al. (2019) defined impact as "the effect that the nonprofit organization has on beneficiaries and society as a whole." Michel and Rieunier (2012) explained that impact focuses on the positive changes that the nonprofit organization makes in society. Michaelidou et al. (2015) pointed out that impact reflects the long-term success of the nonprofit organization in achieving its social and environmental goals.

Applied Study

This part includes several elements: importance of the study, problem and questions of the study, objectives of the study, hypotheses of the study, limits of the study, study methodology, analysis and discussion of study results and testing of hypotheses, and finally summary of results and recommendations.

Importance of the Study

The scientific importance of the study stems from the importance of the topic of electronic word of mouth on social media and nonprofit brand image, as there is a need for more studies related to charitable work in the Arab Republic of Egypt. Reed (2020) pointed out that charitable work with its institutions is a fundamental pillar for community development by serving vulnerable groups and meeting the needs of beneficiaries from the projects provided by nonprofit organizations.

The applied importance of the study stems from the vital role of nonprofit organizations in promoting community development, which necessitates maximizing the impact of electronic word of mouth in supporting their mental image. In this context, the necessity of strategic alignment between published activities and declared orientations to enhance the credibility of these organizations before stakeholders emerges, which was emphasized by the study of Al-Agha (2026); this contributes to providing applied insights to enable nonprofit institutions to invest in social media platforms in building a strong and reliable brand.

Problem and Questions of the Study

The researcher formulated the problem of the study in the following questions:

Is there an effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image for donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt?

Are there differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt regarding the study variables (electronic word of mouth on social media, nonprofit brand image) according to demographic variables (gender, age, educational level, income, marital status, urban/rural residence)?

Objectives of the Study

This study seeks to achieve the following objectives:

To identify the effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image for donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt.

To measure the differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt regarding the study variables (electronic word of mouth on social media, nonprofit brand image) according to demographic variables (gender, age, educational level, income, marital status, urban/rural residence).

Hypotheses of the Study

This study seeks to test the validity or invalidity of the following two hypotheses:

There is no effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image for donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt.

There are no significant differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt regarding the study variables (electronic word of mouth on social media, nonprofit brand image) according to demographic variables (gender, age, educational level, income, marital status, urban/rural residence).

Limits of the Study

The study limits focus on the conceptual and practical framework related to the study topic, which includes the basic variables, challenges, and scientific and practical constraints faced by the researcher during the implementation of the study, as follows:

Conceptual Limits

The study focuses on the effect of electronic word of mouth on social media (eWOM) on the brand image of nonprofit organizations. These variables were determined based on previous literature and related field research, which may exclude other potential variables that affect brand image.

Practical Constraints

The study faces challenges related to collecting and analyzing data about electronic word of mouth on social media in the context of nonprofit organizations, and these challenges are as follows:

Diversity of social media platforms: The characteristics of social media platforms vary and differ in the type of interaction they allow, where Jwayyed (2026) pointed to the specificity of the Facebook platform in enhancing social accountability. Based on this, measuring the effect of eWOM uniformly becomes difficult, which emphasizes the necessity of analyzing each platform according to its own context.

Speed of content spread: Content on social media is characterized by the speed of its spread and the changing dynamics of interaction, which makes it difficult to accurately track and understand effects in the long term.

Measuring sentiments and emotions: Analyzing the sentiments and emotions associated with eWOM interactions is difficult, as these emotions play an important role in shaping brand image but are complex to measure.

Resources of nonprofit organizations: Nonprofit organizations may face limitations in the resources allocated to managing and analyzing their presence on social media, which affects the quantity and quality of eWOM available for analysis.

Availability of data: There may be difficulties in accessing eWOM data related to nonprofit organizations due to privacy policies or lack of activity on some platforms.

Scientific Constraints

The study relies on a quantitative methodology using online questionnaires, which may affect the accuracy and validity of responses due to participants' self-bias or their incomplete understanding of the questions. The study is also limited to specific variables without taking into account other external factors that may affect the relationship between electronic word of mouth on social media (eWOM) and brand image.

Temporal Constraints

The study was limited to a specific time period for data collection from May 15, 2024 to July 1, 2024, which may affect the ability to analyze the long-term effects of electronic word of mouth on social media (eWOM) on nonprofit brand image. Rapid changes in social media trends may also make the results limited for other time periods.

Spatial Constraints

The study is limited to the governorates of the Arab Republic of Egypt, which may affect the generalization of results to other regions with different social and economic characteristics.

Study Methodology

This includes the data required for the study and its sources, the study population and sample, the research tool and data collection method, measurement of study variables, and statistical analysis methods, as follows:

Data Required for the Study and Its Sources

The researcher relied on two types of data in this study:

Secondary data: These are data obtained by reviewing Arabic and foreign books, studies, and research that addressed the study variables and related topics in a way that enables the researcher to establish concepts and prepare the theoretical framework for the study. This also includes reviewing the Ministry of Solidarity, the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics, as well as reviewing nonprofit organization websites and specialized websites in analyzing websites and counting visitor traffic on the Internet and specialized websites in analyzing and monitoring social media statistics by country and sector type.

Primary data: These are data collected through a questionnaire (related to the study variables) from individual donors to nonprofit organizations under study, and coding and analyzing them, enabling the researcher to test the extent of validity or invalidity of the study hypotheses and reach results.

Study Population and Sample

The study population of the current study consists of all individual donors to nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt. Table 3 and Table 4 show the population census of the Arab Republic of Egypt by thousands. Table 5 also shows the number of Internet users and the number of social media users in the Arab Republic of Egypt by millions.

Table 3 Population Census of the Arab Republic of Egypt by Gender (2023)

State	Male	Female	Total
Arab Republic of Egypt	53,721,266	50,741,279	104,462,545

Source: Prepared by the researcher based on Egypt in Numbers 2023, issued by the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (Appendix No. 1).

Table 4 Population Census of the Arab Republic of Egypt by Place of Residence (Urban and Rural) (2023)

Governorate	Urban	Rural	Total
Arab Republic of Egypt	44,825,058	59,637,487	104,462,545

Source: Prepared by the researcher based on Egypt in Numbers 2023, issued by the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (Appendix No. 1).

Table 5 Internet Users and Social Media Users in the Arab Republic of Egypt (2024)

Internet Users	Social Media Users
82.01 million	45.40 million

Source: Prepared by the researcher based on the Egypt 2024 Digital Report issued by Hootsuite (Appendix No. 2).

Study Sample: Due to the absence of a framework for the study population and the difficulty of determining the population size and the spread of its individuals, and based on the numbers in Table 3 and Table 4, the study population exceeds 100,000 individuals, and therefore the minimum sample size is 383 individuals (Thompson, 2012).

The researcher used Internet-mediated questionnaires (Online Survey), making it available to a wide audience of potential participants, which was designed using Google Drive. The researcher distributed the questionnaire through social media sites, from May 15, 2024 to May 25, 2024, to collect a small preliminary sample to ensure that the respondents understood the questionnaire phrases. The response rate was 70 individuals, with 45 valid questionnaires from those who had actually donated to nonprofit organizations, and 25 individuals who had not donated. Then the researcher distributed the questionnaire through social media sites from June 1, 2024 to July 1, 2024.

The researcher relied on the online questionnaire because it matches the conditions for applying it to the current study, where Saunders et al. (2012) believe that certain conditions must be met for applying an online questionnaire, including that the individuals of the study population can deal with the Internet, that the questionnaire questions directed to the targets are closed and as short as possible, and that the questionnaire is placed on the Internet for a period of two to six weeks. Accordingly, the response rate was 388 individuals, with 374 valid questionnaires representing the study sample, consisting of those who had actually donated to nonprofit organizations in Egypt, and 14 individuals who had not donated before. It is preferable that the sample size be larger than the previously determined minimum.

Research Tool and Data Collection Method

The research tool is the questionnaire. For the purposes of this study, a questionnaire was prepared to be answered by the respondent himself. The questionnaire included four questions: the first: the respondent is asked whether he has donated before to nonprofit organizations or not. The second: the respondent is asked to mark the nonprofit organization to which he donated. The third: contains 23 phrases expressing the study variables (please refer to the questionnaire in the study appendix) measured using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from "strongly agree" (5) to "strongly disagree" (1). The fourth: relates to demographic variables, and these phrases were developed and adopted from previous studies closely related to the topic as shown in Table 6.

Table 6 Previous Studies Used in Measuring Study Variables

Study Variables	Previous Studies	Number of Phrases
Electronic Word of Mouth	Haq et al. (2024); Hoang-Le (2020)	1-11
Nonprofit Brand Image	Huang and Ku (2016)	12-23

Source: Prepared by the researcher in light of previous studies.

Validity and Reliability Tests for Study Variables Validity Test

To verify the validity of the questionnaire in achieving the purpose for which it was designed, the researcher relied on phrases whose validity and reliability were proven by previous studies. The researcher also presented the questionnaire to a group of experts and specialists in marketing professors before presenting it to the study sample, and their observations were taken and some modifications were made until it appeared in its final form in the study appendix.

Reliability Test

This test is used to know the extent to which the questionnaire can be relied upon in data characterized by consistency. Due to the clear variance between the two study variables, the researcher relied on Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient, which enables measuring the consistency of the scale through internal consistency (Colton and Covert, 2007). The researcher conducted a pilot test on a small sample of individual donors to nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt amounting to 45 individuals to identify the extent of the respondents' understanding of the questionnaire phrases and that the answers express the study variables and dimensions.

The analysis results for the independent variable (electronic word of mouth on social media) shown in Table 7 indicate the following:

Cronbach's alpha value for the independent variable electronic word of mouth was 0.915, containing 11 phrases, indicating a high level of reliability for the dimension elements.

The overall correlation relationship between the elements was greater than 0.3 for all phrases, indicating a high internal consistency between the variable phrases.

The analysis results for the dependent variable (nonprofit brand image) shown in Table 8 indicate the following:

Cronbach's alpha value for the dependent variable nonprofit brand image was 0.934, containing 12 phrases, indicating a high level of reliability for the dimension elements.

The overall correlation relationship between the elements was greater than 0.3 for all phrases, indicating a high internal consistency between the variable phrases.

Table 7 Overall Correlation Coefficients and Reliability Coefficients for Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media

Code	Phrases	Overall Correlation Coefficient	Reliability Coefficient if Item Deleted
1Ewom	Most comments on social media about the nonprofit organization I donate to are true.	0.667	0.907
2Ewom	Most comments on social media about the nonprofit organization I donate to are accurate.	0.568	0.912
3Ewom	Most comments on social media about the nonprofit organization I donate to are credible.	0.705	0.905
4Ewom	Individuals' opinions on social media about the nonprofit organization I donate to are reliable.	0.748	0.903
5Ewom	Individuals' opinions on social media about the nonprofit organization I donate to are clearly presented.	0.638	0.909
6Ewom	People who provide their opinions on social media about the nonprofit organization I donate to do so objectively.	0.766	0.904
7Ewom	The opinions I obtained through social media about the nonprofit organization I donate to are based on real experience.	0.679	0.907
8Ewom	The purpose of the opinions published on social media about the nonprofit organization I donate to is to share experiences honestly with others.	0.576	0.912
9Ewom	Increasing the number of opinions about the nonprofit organization on the same site enhances its credibility.	0.649	0.908
10Ewom	I trust opinions that receive a large number of comments.	0.715	0.905
11Ewom	The nonprofit organization about which opinions are written on multiple sites is more reliable.	0.718	0.904

Number of phrases: 11; Alpha = 0.915. Source: Prepared by the researcher based on statistical analysis results.

Table 8 Overall Correlation Coefficients and Reliability Coefficients for Nonprofit Brand Image

Code	Phrases	Overall Correlation Coefficient	Reliability Coefficient if Item Deleted
1U	The nonprofit organization I donate to is absolutely necessary for society.	0.658	0.931
2U	The nonprofit organization I donate to serves the public interest of society.	0.658	0.931
3U	The nonprofit organization I donate to cares about the welfare of society.	0.590	0.936
1E	The nonprofit organization I donate to works in the best possible way.	0.730	0.928
2E	The nonprofit organization I donate to is serious about helping people.	0.769	0.927
3E	The nonprofit organization I donate to is able to succeed in achieving its goals.	0.761	0.927
4E	The nonprofit organization I donate to provides excellent service to beneficiaries.	0.791	0.926
1A	The nonprofit organization I deal with is friendly.	0.730	0.928
2A	The nonprofit organization I deal with is generous in giving.	0.776	0.926
3A	The nonprofit organization I deal with is welcoming.	0.787	0.927
1D	The nonprofit organization I deal with adopts new methods for operation (management and implementation of daily activities and operations).	0.764	0.926
2D	The nonprofit organization I deal with adopts innovative methods for operation (management and implementation of daily activities and operations).	0.638	0.931

Number of phrases: 12; Alpha = 0.934. Source: Prepared by the researcher based on statistical analysis results.

Statistical Analysis Methods

The researcher relied on the following statistical analysis methods:

Simple Linear Regression Analysis: To measure the effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable. It was used to test the first hypothesis.

Mann-Whitney Test: To measure the significance of differences between two groups. It was used to measure the difference according to gender and place of residence in the second hypothesis of the study hypotheses.

Kruskal-Wallis Test: To measure the significance of differences between more than two groups. It was used to measure the differences according to age group, educational level, marital status, and net income in the second hypothesis of the study hypotheses.

Study Approach

The researcher used the deductive approach in analyzing the relationship between the study variables, which is suitable for quantitative research methods.

Analysis and Discussion of Study Results and Hypothesis Testing Descriptive Statistics for Study Variables

After conducting the reliability test, the researcher calculated the arithmetic mean and standard deviation for each of the study variables, as shown in Table 9, from which the following is clear:

The study sample tends, according to the general arithmetic mean for the first variable electronic word of mouth on social media, towards positivity, where the value of the general arithmetic mean was 4.32, indicating a general awareness among the study sample individuals of the importance of electronic word of mouth on social media. The dimension "quantity of electronic word of mouth" ranked first with an arithmetic mean of 4.35, indicating that most of the respondents' opinions range between strongly agree and agree, and tend to strongly agree. The dimension "credibility of electronic word of mouth" ranked second with an arithmetic mean of 4.33, which indicates that most of the respondents' opinions also range between strongly agree and agree, and tend to strongly agree. Finally, the dimension "quality of electronic word of mouth" ranked third with an arithmetic mean of 4.29, meaning that most of the respondents' opinions range between strongly agree and agree, and tend to strongly agree. These results reflect the participants' appreciation of the importance of quantity, credibility, and quality of electronic word of mouth.

The study sample tends, according to the general arithmetic mean for the second variable nonprofit brand image, towards positivity to a greater degree, where the value of the general arithmetic mean was 4.41, indicating a strong and positive awareness among the study sample individuals of nonprofit brand image. The dimension "efficiency" ranked first with an arithmetic mean of 4.45, indicating that most of the respondents' opinions range between strongly agree and agree, and tend to strongly agree. The dimension "impact" ranked second with an arithmetic mean of 4.41, indicating that most of the respondents' opinions range between strongly agree and agree, and tend to strongly agree. The dimension "dynamism" ranked third with an arithmetic mean of 4.386, indicating agreement of opinions about this dimension with a tendency towards full agreement. Finally, the dimension "usefulness" ranked fourth with an arithmetic mean of 4.385, which reflects a positive evaluation, where most of the respondents' opinions range between strongly agree and agree, and tend to strongly agree. These results reflect the participants' awareness of the importance of efficiency, impact, dynamism, and usefulness in shaping nonprofit brand image.

Table 9 Descriptive Analysis of Study Variables

Variable	Dimension	Arithmetic Mean	Standard Deviation	Rank
Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media	Credibility of Electronic Word of Mouth	4.33	0.583	2
	Quality of Electronic Word of Mouth	4.29	0.483	3
	Quantity of Electronic Word of Mouth	4.35	0.487	1
	General Arithmetic Mean for Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media	4.32	0.417	—
Nonprofit Brand Image	Usefulness	4.385	0.473	4
	Efficiency	4.45	0.342	1
	Impact	4.41	0.402	2
	Dynamism	4.386	0.445	3
	General Arithmetic Mean for Nonprofit Brand Image	4.41	0.276	—

Source: Prepared by the researcher from statistical analysis results.

Hypothesis Testing First Hypothesis: Effect of Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media on Nonprofit Brand Image

To identify the effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image, the researcher formulated the first hypothesis from the study hypotheses which states that: "There is no significant effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image for donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt."

Simple regression analysis was used to study the effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image, and Table 10 shows the results of the statistical analysis of the data:

There is a positive relationship between electronic word of mouth on social media and nonprofit brand image, where the value of beta equals 0.2261.

There is a significant effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image, where the T value equals 7.019.

Electronic word of mouth on social media explains approximately 11.7% of the change occurring in nonprofit brand image, where the coefficient of determination R squared equals 0.117. The rest is due to other factors not included in the model.

From the above, it is clear that there is a significant positive effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image for donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt, which means that the first hypothesis is completely invalid.

Table 10 Effect of Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media on Nonprofit Brand Image

Independent Variable	Dependent Variable	Beta	R Squared	T	Sig.
Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media	Nonprofit Brand Image	0.2261	0.117	7.019	0.000**

** Significant at 0.001 level. Source: Prepared by the researcher based on statistical analysis results.

Figure 1 Conceptual Framework for the Relationship Between Study Variables

Source: Prepared by the researcher.

Conceptual framework diagram showing the relationship between electronic word of mouth on social media (independent variable with three dimensions: quality, quantity, credibility) and nonprofit brand image (dependent variable with four dimensions: dynamism, usefulness, efficiency, impact)

Figure 2 Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media and Nonprofit Brand Image

Source: Prepared by the researcher based on statistical analysis results.

Scatter plot showing the positive relationship between electronic word of mouth on social media and nonprofit brand image with regression line

The researcher also tested the effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on each dimension of nonprofit brand image separately, through testing the sub-hypotheses of the following hypothesis: "There is no significant effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image for donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt." This hypothesis is divided into the following sub-hypotheses:

There is no significant effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on usefulness for donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt.

There is no significant effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on efficiency for donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt.

There is no significant effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on impact for donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt.

There is no significant effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on dynamism for donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt.

Simple regression analysis was used to study the effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on each dimension of nonprofit brand image separately, and Table 11 shows the results of the statistical analysis of the data, from which the following is clear:

Regarding the dimension "Usefulness":

There is a positive relationship between electronic word of mouth on social media and the usefulness dimension, where the beta value equals 0.2806.

There is a significant effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on the usefulness dimension, where the T value equals 4.9267.

Electronic word of mouth on social media explains approximately 6.13% of the change occurring in the usefulness dimension, where the coefficient of determination R squared equals 0.0613. The rest is due to other factors not included in the model.

Regarding the dimension "Efficiency":

There is a positive relationship between electronic word of mouth on social media and the efficiency dimension, where the beta value equals 0.1126.

There is a significant effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on the efficiency dimension, where the T value equals 2.6725.

Electronic word of mouth on social media explains approximately 1.88% of the change occurring in the efficiency dimension, where the coefficient of determination R squared equals 0.0188. The rest is due to other factors not included in the model.

Regarding the dimension "Impact":

There is a positive relationship between electronic word of mouth on social media and the impact dimension, where the beta value equals 0.2548.

There is a significant effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on the impact dimension, where the T value equals 5.2846.

Electronic word of mouth on social media explains approximately 6.98% of the change occurring in the impact dimension, where the coefficient of determination R squared equals 0.0698. The rest is due to other factors not included in the model.

Regarding the dimension "Dynamism":

There is a positive relationship between electronic word of mouth on social media and the dynamism dimension, where the beta value equals 0.3284.

There is a significant effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on the dynamism dimension, where the T value equals 6.2478.

Electronic word of mouth on social media explains approximately 9.50% of the change occurring in the dynamism dimension, where the coefficient of determination R squared equals 0.0950. The rest is due to other factors not included in the model.

Table 11 Effect of Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media on Dimensions of Nonprofit Brand Image

Independent Variable	Dependent Variable	Dimension	Beta	R Squared	T	Sig.
Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media	Nonprofit Brand Image	Usefulness	0.2806	0.0613	4.9267	0.000**
		Efficiency	0.1126	0.0188	2.6725	0.007**
		Impact	0.2548	0.0698	5.2846	0.000**
		Dynamism	0.3284	0.0950	6.2478	0.000**

** Significant at 0.01 level. Source: Prepared by the researcher based on statistical analysis results.

Figure 3 Relationship Between Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media and Dimensions of Nonprofit Brand Image

Source: Prepared by the researcher based on statistical analysis results.

Bar chart comparing the effect of electronic word of mouth on four dimensions of nonprofit brand image: usefulness (beta=0.2806), efficiency (beta=0.1126), impact (beta=0.2548), and dynamism (beta=0.3284)

From the above, it is clear that there is a significant positive effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on the dimensions of nonprofit brand image. It is also clear that the dynamism dimension ranks first in terms of the strength of its effect by electronic word of mouth, while the efficiency dimension ranks last in terms of the strength of its effect, which means that the first hypothesis is completely invalid.

Second Hypothesis: Significant Differences in Donors' Perception

To identify the significant differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt regarding the study variables (electronic word of mouth on social media, nonprofit brand image) according to demographic variables (gender, age, educational level, income, marital status, urban/rural residence), the researcher formulated the second hypothesis of the study which states that: "There are no significant differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt regarding the study variables (electronic word of mouth on social media, nonprofit brand image) according to demographic variables (gender, age, educational level, income, marital status, urban/rural residence)."

This hypothesis is divided into the following sub-hypotheses:

First Sub-Hypothesis of the Second Hypothesis

States that: "There are no significant differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt regarding the study variables (electronic word of mouth on social media, nonprofit brand image) according to gender (male - female)." To test this hypothesis, the researcher relied on the Mann-Whitney test to verify the validity or invalidity of this hypothesis. Table 12 shows the test results.

From Table 12, it is clear that:

The Z value for the variable electronic word of mouth on social media equals -0.562 with a significance level of 0.574, which means that there are no significant differences in the perception of donors of electronic word of mouth on social media according to gender (male - female).

The Z value for the variable nonprofit brand image equals -0.785 with a significance level of 0.432, which means that there are no significant differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit brand image according to gender (male - female).

This indicates the complete validity of the first sub-hypothesis.

Table 12 Significant Differences in the Perception of Donors of Nonprofit Organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt Regarding Study Variables According to Gender

Variable	Gender	Mean Rank	U	Z	Sig.
Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media	Male	190.17	16487.500	-0.562	0.574
Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media	Female	183.85	16487.500	-0.562	0.574
Nonprofit Brand Image	Male	191.22	16260.500	-0.785	0.432
Nonprofit Brand Image	Female	182.41	16260.500	-0.785	0.432

Source: Prepared by the researcher based on statistical analysis results.

Second Sub-Hypothesis of the Second Hypothesis

States that: "There are no significant differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt regarding the study variables (electronic word of mouth on social media, nonprofit brand image) according to age." To test this hypothesis, the researcher relied on the Kruskal-Wallis test to verify the validity or invalidity of this hypothesis. Table 13 shows the test results.

From Table 13, it is clear that:

The Chi-square value for the variable electronic word of mouth on social media equals 2.860 with a significance level of 0.239, which means that there are no significant differences in the perception of donors of electronic word of mouth on social media according to age.

The Chi-square value for the variable nonprofit brand image equals 1.813 with a significance level of 0.404, which means that there are no significant differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit brand image according to age.

This indicates the complete validity of the second sub-hypothesis.

Table 13 Significant Differences in the Perception of Donors of Nonprofit Organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt Regarding Study Variables According to Age

Variable	Age Group	Mean Rank	Chi-square	Sig.
Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media	Less than 25 years	188.65	2.860	0.239
	From 25 to less than 50 years	192.66
	More than 50 years	167.81
Nonprofit Brand Image	Less than 25 years	197.77	1.813	0.404
	From 25 to less than 50 years	182.12
	More than 50 years	197.91

Source: Prepared by the researcher based on statistical analysis results.

Third Sub-Hypothesis of the Second Hypothesis

States that: "There are no significant differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt regarding the study variables (electronic word of mouth on social media, nonprofit brand image) according to educational level." To test this hypothesis, the researcher relied on the Kruskal-Wallis test. Table 14 shows the test results.

From Table 14, it is clear that:

The Chi-square value for the variable electronic word of mouth on social media equals 2.782 with a significance level of 0.734, which means that there are no significant differences in the perception of donors of electronic word of mouth on social media according to educational level. This indicates that educational level does not greatly affect how donors perceive this variable.

The Chi-square value for the variable nonprofit brand image equals 4.925 with a significance level of 0.425, which means that there are no significant differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit brand image according to educational level.

This indicates the complete validity of the third sub-hypothesis.

Table 14 Significant Differences in the Perception of Donors of Nonprofit Organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt Regarding Study Variables According to Educational Level

Variable	Educational Level	Mean Rank	Chi-square	Sig.
Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media	Without qualification	234.38	2.782	0.734
	Below intermediate qualification	200.56
	Intermediate qualification	202.32
	Above intermediate and below university	183.63
	University qualification	190.57
	Postgraduate studies	175.08
Nonprofit Brand Image	Without qualification	117.00	4.925	0.425
	Below intermediate qualification	186.06
	Intermediate qualification	188.77
	Above intermediate and below university	182.63
	University qualification	197.67
	Postgraduate studies	173.05

Source: Prepared by the researcher based on statistical analysis results.

Fourth Sub-Hypothesis of the Second Hypothesis

States that: "There are no significant differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt regarding the study variables (electronic word of mouth on social media, nonprofit brand image) according to income." To test this hypothesis, the researcher relied on the Kruskal-Wallis test. Table 15 shows the test results.

From Table 15, it is clear that:

The Chi-square value for the variable electronic word of mouth on social media equals 5.166 with a significance level of 0.160, which means that there are no significant differences in the perception of donors of electronic word of mouth on social media according to income.

The Chi-square value for the variable nonprofit brand image equals 2.843 with a significance level of 0.417, which means that there are no significant differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit brand image according to income.

This indicates the complete validity of the fourth sub-hypothesis.

Table 15 Significant Differences in the Perception of Donors of Nonprofit Organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt Regarding Study Variables According to Income

Variable	Income	Mean Rank	Chi-square	Sig.
Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media	Less than 6,000 pounds monthly	182.34	5.166	0.160
	From 6,000 to less than 12,000 pounds monthly	191.42
	From 12,000 to less than 18,000 pounds monthly	200.44
	More than 18,000 pounds monthly	155.88
Nonprofit Brand Image	Less than 6,000 pounds monthly	183.07	2.843	0.417
	From 6,000 to less than 12,000 pounds monthly	187.15
	From 12,000 to less than 18,000 pounds monthly	200.24
	More than 18,000 pounds monthly	168.17

Source: Prepared by the researcher based on statistical analysis results.

Fifth Sub-Hypothesis of the Second Hypothesis

States that: "There are no significant differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt regarding the study variables (electronic word of mouth on social media, nonprofit brand image) according to marital status." To test this hypothesis, the researcher relied on the Kruskal-Wallis test. Table 16 shows the test results.

From Table 16, it is clear that:

The Chi-square value for the variable electronic word of mouth on social media equals 6.767 with a significance level of 0.149, which means that there are no significant differences in the perception of donors of electronic word of mouth on social media according to marital status.

The Chi-square value for the variable nonprofit brand image equals 5.313 with a significance level of 0.257, which means that there are no significant differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit brand image according to marital status.

This indicates the complete validity of the fifth sub-hypothesis.

Table 16 Significant Differences in the Perception of Donors of Nonprofit Organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt Regarding Study Variables According to Marital Status

Variable	Marital Status	Mean Rank	Chi-square	Sig.
Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media	Single	206.54	6.767	0.149
	Married	184.49
	Married with children	173.94
	Divorced	164.67
	Widowed	93.00
Nonprofit Brand Image	Single	183.96	5.313	0.257
	Married	181.90
	Married with children	197.79
	Divorced	142.50
	Widowed	362.50

Source: Prepared by the researcher based on statistical analysis results.

Sixth Sub-Hypothesis of the Second Hypothesis

States that: "There are no significant differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt regarding the study variables (electronic word of mouth on social media, nonprofit brand image) according to urban/rural residence." To test this hypothesis, the researcher relied on the Mann-Whitney test. Table 17 shows the test results.

From Table 17, it is clear that:

The Z value for the variable electronic word of mouth on social media equals -0.426 with a significance level of 0.670, which means that there are no significant differences in the perception of donors of electronic word of mouth on social media according to urban/rural residence.

The Z value for the variable nonprofit brand image equals -1.271 with a significance level of 0.204, which means that there are no significant differences in the perception of donors of nonprofit brand image according to urban/rural residence.

This indicates the complete validity of the sixth sub-hypothesis.

Table 17 Significant Differences in the Perception of Donors of Nonprofit Organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt Regarding Study Variables According to Urban/Rural Residence

Variable	Residence	Mean Rank	U	Z	Sig.
Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media	Rural	193.20	8459.000	-0.426	0.670
Electronic Word of Mouth on Social Media	Urban	186.52	8459.000	-0.426	0.670
Nonprofit Brand Image	Rural	204.46	7839.500	-1.271	0.204
Nonprofit Brand Image	Urban	184.58	7839.500	-1.271	0.204

Source: Prepared by the researcher based on statistical analysis results.

From the above, it is clear that:

This means the complete validity of the second hypothesis.

Summary of Results and Recommendations Summary of Study Results

There is a significant positive effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image for donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt at a significance level of 0.01. This means that electronic word of mouth on social media for donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt can improve nonprofit brand image, and this result can be explained through the study of Hafeez et al. (2021) which concluded that brand image depends on electronic word of mouth.

Study Recommendations

Nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt must pay attention to electronic word of mouth on social media for donors on a permanent and continuous basis in a way that ensures reducing negative comments and supporting nonprofit brand image in a positive manner, as the study concluded that there is a significant positive effect of electronic word of mouth on social media on nonprofit brand image for donors of nonprofit organizations in the Arab Republic of Egypt. Therefore, the researcher recommends paying attention to the topic of electronic word of mouth on social media and nonprofit brand image by doing the following:

Enhancing electronic word of mouth on social media through (active interaction with the audience, encouraging donors to share their positive experiences, monitoring and improving brand image based on comments).

Improving digital communication strategy through (developing inspiring and attractive content, using digital influencers to increase reach and enhance trust).

Investing in training and skill development through (training employees on managing and developing digital presence, following the latest trends in social media).

Focusing on the unified vision through (ensuring clarity of message and principles across all communication channels).

Conducting continuous analytics through (using data analysis tools to evaluate campaign effectiveness, adjusting strategies based on analytics to achieve goals).

The researcher recommends conducting more research related to both electronic word of mouth on social media and nonprofit brand image, which can be presented as follows:

The role of digital influencers in improving the brand image of nonprofit organizations.

The effect of electronic word of mouth on the motivation to donate.

The effects of online advertising campaigns on the brand image of nonprofit organizations.

Acknowledgments

The author expresses gratitude to all donors who participated in this study for their valuable time and responses.

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